Relevant Literature
Aley, Melinda and Linsay Hahn. 2020. “The Powerful Male Hero: A Content Analysis of Gender Representation in Posters for Children’s Animated Movies.” Sex Roles 83:499-509, DOI: 10.1007/s1119-020-01127-z
This is a strong example of content analysis analyzing gender portrayals in animated movie posters. After analyzing patterns of stereotypical gendered portrayals, the researchers discuss the implications, long-term and short-term effects on young viewers. I think that this source is helpful to my research because is it a strong example of content analysis and the affects that media has on children.
Bain, Allison. 2003. “White Western Teenage Girls and Urban Space: Challenging Hollywood’s Representations.” Gender, Place and Culture 10(3): 197-213, DOI: 10.1080/0966369032000113984
This article analyzes the representation of fictional cinematic characters in Hollywood, specifically the representations of white female adolescence in the US. Researchers analyzed nine Hollywood movies from the 1980s and 1990s. The study looks less at characteristics and more on the argument that Hollywood represents an oversimplified image of teen girls participating only peripherally in everyday life.
Behm-Morawitz, Elizabeth and Dana Mastro. 2009. “The Effects of the Sexualization of Female Characters on the Gender Stereotyping and Female Self-Concept.” Sex Roles 61(11-12): 808-823, DOI:10.1007/s11199-009-9683-8
This study looks at female character representation in video games and its effects on the sexualization and female- self-concept. Results showed that video games with sexualized female main characters, caused female participant’s self-efficacy to be negatively affected.
Bickford, Tyler. 2015. “Tween Intimacy and the Problem of Public Life in Children’s Media: “Having it All” On the Disney Channel’s Hannah Montana.” Women’s Studies Quarterly 43(1-1): 66-82, DOI: 10.1353/wsq.2015.0022
This is an essay written in 2015 that dives into the problematics of gender representation and stereotyping of young girls in consumer media. Bickford argues that femininity is socially based on being white, affluent, suburban, and consumerist, so young girls are automatically exposed to that expected to be a certain way due to what society deems as ‘normal’. Another interesting aspect of this essay is the author’s interest in the irony that women are often infantilized in media and how girls are feminized. By looking at consumer media the author is able to discuss the frameworks of women/ girl’s representation in media and how they have adapted.
Blue, Morgan Genevieve. 2013. “The Best of Both Worlds?: Youth, gender, and a post-feminist sensibility in Disney’s Hannah Montana.” Feminist Media Studies 13(4):660-675, https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2012.724024
This study focuses on the Disney channel’s show Hannah Montana, which I used in my content analysis as well. By looking at a contemporary show and focusing on the three main female characters, the researcher was able to show how each character performs femininity in different ways and the ‘ramifications for constructions of girlhood in contemporary media foregrounding girls and attracting young female audiences.’
Butler, Judith. 1988. “Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory.” Theater Journal 40(4): 519-531, https://doi.org/10.2307/3207893
This essay outlines Judith Butler’s theory on performativity and gender construction in society that lays the framework for my research.
Daalmans, Serena, Mariska Kleemans and Anne Sadza. 2017. “Gender Representation on Gender-Targeted Television Channels: A Comparison of Female- and Male- Targeted TV Channels in the Netherlands.” Sex Roles 77: 366-378, DOI: 10.1007/s11199-016-0727-6
This was a content analysis study done on television shows in the Netherlands. It focused on gender representation of male and female-targeted channels and looked at the presence of men and women as well as the nature of the presence. The researchers found that male-targeted channels tended to portray women in a less equal, more traditional, and stereotypical way whereas female-targeted channels displayed more equality among the sexes.
Devoe, Noelle and Tamara Fuentes. 2020. “25 Amazing Disney Channel Shows that you Need to Binge ASAP.” Seventeen. https://www.seventeen.com/celebrity/movies-tv/a12042627/disney-channel-shows/
An article published for Seventeen magazine that outlines popular Disney Channel shows over the course of the past 20 years. This was helpful when deciding what my same of shows was going to be for my research.
Drisko, James and Tina Maschi. 2015. Content Analysis: Basic Content Analysis. Oxford Scholarship Online, DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190215491.001.0001
Drisko and Maschi outline the key elements of content analysis and the best methods of sampling, coding, and data collection.
England, Dawn Elizabeth. 2011. “Gender Role Portrayal and the Disney Princesses.” Sex Roles: A Journal of Research 64(7-8):555-567, DOI: 10.1007/s11199-011-9930-7
This article looked at Disney princes and princesses over time all the way up to recent films such as The Princess and the Frog.The researcher concluded that although gender roles have changed over time in Disney princess movies, the male characters still exhibit more androgyny and less change over the years.
Gantz, Walter and Xiaquan Zhao. 2003. “Disruptive and cooperative interruptions in prime-time television fiction: the role of gender, status, and topic.” Journal of Communication 53(2): 347-362, DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2003.tb02595.x
This study not only looked male and female character representation, but also analysed how assertive their characters were. The content analysis revealed that male characters were more likely to interrupt conversations and be disruptive whereas female characters were more likely to be cooperative. Such gender discrepancies only became clearer and more polarized as the characters had higher status.
Gerding, Ashton and Nancy Signorielli. 2014. “Gender Roles in Tween Television Programming: A Content Analysis of Two Genres.” Sex Roles 70:43-56, DOI: 10.1007/s11199-013-0330-z
This was a content analysis study similar to my research because it looks at gender role portrayals of episodes of many different United States tween television programs. The analysis focused on the number of male and female characters and the role portrayals in appearance, behavior, and personality. The researchers found that compared to males, females were overall more concerned about their appearance, and received comments on their looks.
Gillis, Stacy, Gillian Howie, and Rebecca Munford. 2004. Third Wave Feminism: A Critical Exploration. New York: Houndsmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire.
Gillis, Howie, and Munford discuss the key elements and identifying factors of the third wave of feminism. Critical in understanding the history and framework behind the analysis of my results.
Glascock, Jack. 2001. “Gender roles on prime-time network television: Demographics and behaviors.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 45(4): 656- 669, DOI: 10.1207/s15506878jobem4504_7
This was a study done that provided insight into gender demographics and behaviors on prime-time network television. It focused on inequalities that have persisted and continued to progress over time as well as patterns of change over the years. By analyzing the demographics and behavior of genders on and off the screen, researchers were able to conclude that gender representation on prime-time television is unequal, however, females were found to be less underrepresented now than in the past. Not only representation but also how male versus female characters are represented played a role in the study as well including physical appearance, occupation, and other characteristics.
Gronert, Nona Maria. 2020. “Teaching & Learning Guide for: ‘Law, Campus Policy, Social Movements, and Sexual Violence: Where do we stand in the #MeToo movement?’”Sociology Compass 14(4): 1-10, DOI: 10.1111/soc4.12776
This is an article that discusses the #MeToo movement specifically in regard to conversations and awareness of sexual violence.
Hardesty, Constance, Deeann Wenk and Carolyn Stout Morgan. 1995. “Paternal Involvement and the Development of Gender Expectations in Sons and Daughters.” Youth & Society 26(3):283-297, DOI: 10.1177/0044118X95026003001
This longitudinal study was prevalent to my research topic of sexuality and gender norms and expectations in children because it examines the role that fathers play in the development of children’s gender roles throughout their childhood. The effects were greater for sons than for daughters and the study also showed that an ongoing father/child relationship is more important than paternal involvement in childhood.
Hayes, Amy Roberson, Rebecca S. Bigler, and Erica S. Weisgram. 2017. “Of Men and Money: Characteristics of Occupations that Affect the Gender Differentiation of Children’s Occupational Interests.” Sex Roles 78:775-788, DOI: 10.1007/s11199-017-0846-8
This is a study done by researchers that specifically looks at the relationship between occupational interests and gender at a young age. This is very prevalent to my research topic because it looks at gender differentiation of occupational interests and how it is correlated with expectations as adults. After surveying children over the course of two studies the researchers concluded that women typically work in jobs with differing values.
Jackson, Emma F., Kay Bussey. 2020. “Under Pressure: Differentiating Adolescents’ Expectations Regarding Stereotypic Masculine and FeminineBehavior.” Sex Roles 83(5-6): 303-314, DOI: 10.1007/s11199-019-01113-0
This study aims to compare societal pressures on men and women adolescents to engage in certain behaviors based on their sexuality and gender. The study showed that young men felt more pressure to conform to gender behavior expectations than young women felt. This emphasizes how society influences perceptions of gender identity and performativity amongst young men and women.
Masequesmay, Gina. 2020. “Sexism.” Encyclopedia Britannica.
Masequesmay outlines a basic understanding of sexism and gender inequality. This was relevant to formatting the theory and introduction of my research.
McCabe, Janice, Emily Fairchild, Liz Grauerholz, Bernice A. Pescosolido, and Daniel Tope. 2011. “Gender in Twentieth-Century Children’s Books: Patterns of Disparity in Titles and Central Characters.” Gender & Society 25(2):197-226, DOI: 10.1177/0891243211398358
This is a longitudinal study that analyzes children’s books through content analysis. Through looking at different children’s books over the course of a few decades, it is prevalent that gender equality is uneven and directly tied to patterns of social norms during the timeframe. This supplemented my research topic because it is a strong example of content analysis and it exemplifies the effects that certain kinds of media have on children.
Myers, Kristen and Laura Raymond. 2010.“Elementary School Girls and Heteronormativity: The Girl Project.” Gender & Society 23(2): 167-188, DOI: 10.1177/0891243209358579
In the study done by Kristen Myers and Laura Raymond, The Girl Project, researchers aimed to analyze young girls and their interests, skills, and concerns. Throughout the study, Myers and Raymond point out four main social forces, peer groups, parents, the media, and school.
Olsen, Beth and Willian Douglas. 1997. “The Family on Television: Evaluation of Gender Roles in Situation Comedy.” Sex Roles 36(5-6): 409-427, DOI: 10.1007/BF02766656
This was a longitudinal study done by researching the depictions of domestic comedies’ description of gender roles on television over the course of 40 years. The researchers concluded that depictions of gender roles fluctuated throughout the time periods. More recent comedies contained fewer positive depictions of the family and gender roles and showed that families that were more distressed were less desirable and less like their own.
Powell, Gary N. 2011. Women & Men in Management. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.
This book covers a wide range of topics that are relevant to my research because it focuses on many aspects of gender expectations and norms in the workplace. Powell’s work also supplemented my understanding of gender stereotypes.
Rampton, Martha. 2015. “Four Waves of Feminism.” Pacific University. https://www.pacificu.edu/magazine/four-waves-feminism
Rampton discusses the fourth wave of feminism which contributes to the historical background of my topic and influential factors of feminine stereotypes, which supplemented my conclusion and understanding of my results.
Rousseau, Ann, Rache F. Rodgers and Steven Eggermont. 2018. “A Short-Term Longitudinal Exploration of the Impact of TV Exposure on Objectifying Attitudes Toward Women in Early Adolescent Boys.” Sex Roles 80:186-199, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0925-5
This study sampled about 500 young boys over the course of 3, 6-month intervals. By looking at the boy’s attitudes that they had on women at a young age in association to the music and television they were exposed to, researchers were able to conclude that early media exposure contributes to the development of sexually objectifying attitudes against women.
Schulte, Stephanie Ricker. 2011. “Surfing Feminism’s Online Wave: The Internet and the Future of Feminism.” Feminist Studies 37(3): 727-749, https://www.jstor.org/stable/23069943
This is an article that dives further into feminism, specifically feminism and technology. The author brings up really interesting points about modern-day feminism by asking questions such as; Can the internet provide or become a feminist space? How do online environments enable or compromise offline activism? Are computer networking technologies always already male and a sphere where male dominance is reinforced? These questions center on a problem shared by many new media scholars: Is the internet a vehicle for liberation through collective action or a distraction from the collective and from “real” problems?
Shiva, Negar and Zohreh Nosrat Kharazmi. 2019. “The Fourth Wave of Feminism and the Lack of Social Realism in Cyberspace.” Journal of Cyberspace Studies 3(2): 129-146, DOI: 10.22059/JCSS.2019.72456
This was another source on the fourth wave of feminism and outlines its identifying factor of ‘cyber feminism’. This relates to my research and understanding of why the #MeToo movement went so viral.
Yang, Kaite and Joan S. Girgus. 2018. “Are Women More Likely than Men Are to Care Excessively about Maintaining Positive Social Relationships? A Meta-Analytic Review of the Gender Difference in Sociotropy.” Sex Roles 81:157- 172., https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0980-y
The term sociotropy is defined as the tendency to overemphasize maintaining positive social relationships. The researchers were aware that there is evidence that women care more about interpersonal relationships than men, they wanted to dive further into the contributions of this idea. Although this research does not perfectly correlate with my topic, I find it important to include because it provides information on what cultural influences affect women to behave in certain ways. The study concluded that culture was a significant variable when analyzing gender relationships in different societies.
Data Sources
Alber, Mike and Gabe Snyder. 2019. Gabby Duran & The Unsittables. Television Series. Los Angeles: Disney Channel Original Productions.
Jacobs, Michael. 2014. Girl Meets World. Televisions Series. Los Angeles: Disney Channel Original Productions.
O’Connell, Pamela Eells, and Adam Lapidus. 2011. Jessie. Televisions Series. Los Angeles: Disney Channel Original Productions.
Peterson, Steven and Michael Poryes. 2005. Hannah Montana. Televisions Series. Los Angeles: Disney Channel Original Productions.
Rogow, Stan. 2001. Lizzie McGuire. Televisions Series. Los Angeles: Disney Channel Original Productions.
